Marine species introduction via reproduction and its response to ship transit routes

The introduction of nonindigenous species (NIS) threatens global ecosystems and results primarily from human transportation trade activities. Although some NIS can disperse immediately upon arrival (for example, mobile species), actual inoculation for other (sessile) require a reproductive event to produce propagules that establish. potential, however, vary with environmental conditions experienced during transit differ substantially by route. We propose variation in responses, both across routes, is critical but overlooked driver invasions. illustrate these concepts using vessel biofouling organisms, which are exposed vastly different transport the world’s oceans. Current knowledge gaps prevent precise predictions potential be introduced via reproduction. Integrating into management strategies key limiting spread, particularly as climate change novel events continue alter networks. Front Ecol Environ 2022